Social and Economic Changes in the Atlantic World Due to Contacts Among Western Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Essay

From 1492 to 1750, there were many changes in the Atlantic world that were both social and economic. This occurred because of the new contact among Western Europe, the Americas, and Africa. There were several social changes that took place in Western Europe, the Americas, and Africa due to their contacts with the Atlantic world. Also, within these three regions, there were several economic changes as well. By 1750, Western Europe came to dominate both the Americas and Africa socially and economically.There were many social changes involving these three regions. When Western Europe came into contact with the Atlantic world, it underwent many changes, both good and bad. The declining of prices was helpful because it allowed the Europeans to be able to pay less for the necessities that were needed for everyday living. Now they were able to comfortably afford it. The Europeans had more money, and more of what they wanted and needed without having to worry. The Western Europeans also had more access to goods because of the 13 colonies.The colonies allowed them to obtain more necessary crops and foods that they needed to sustain a healthy lifestyle for themselves, and for their families. Industrialization was another social change, but this had more of a negative impact. Cities became overcrowded, which led to copious amounts of people living there. This is never helpful for society. The Americas contact with the Atlantic world led to several social changes. The Spanish conquistador Cortes invaded and conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519.Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire in 1532. When the Europeans invaded the New World it caused the religion of the native people to change drastically. Their religion became Christianity. The Bible was taught amongst all schools. This had an impact on all the children’s education in the Americas. They grew up learning the ways and faith of Christianity. Therefore, generations to come would grow up Christian. Source Cited: http:/ /www. antiessays. com/free-essays/341484. html

Place Of Buddhist Education Earliest and In Present Day in Vietnam

Buddhism has been present in Vietnam for almost two thousand years. Buddhism is an offshoot of Hinduism. It originated in Nepal in 530 B. C. A Hindu price, Gautama who did not like the idea of Hindu caste system, was the founder of Buddhism. Gautama did not believe that any man could be superior to the other and as Hinduism Brahmans are considered superior, he left this religion . Gautama had spent many years wandering and meditating. In the end he found answers to all his questions and hence found the path of enlightenment, â€Å"nirvana†. According to Buddhism, nirvana is the path to endless serenity.It is free from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Moreover, a person will achieve salvation if he believes in the four noble truths. These four noble truths are that a man suffers in all his consecutive lives; the reason for his sufferings is his wants for earthly things, when the person frees himself from all the wants of earthly things he then achieves deliverance. The la st noble truth says that a person can achieve deliverance by following the eightfold noble path . BUDDHIST SCHOOLS Buddhism spread in Vietnam through China in second century A. D. In third and sixth century it came from India.Buddhism came through Vietnam's Red River Delta region and Mekong Delta area. Mahayana Buddhism came from China and became more famous than Theravada (or Hinayana) Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism came from India and was accepted by people in the Southern delta region. Both of these have different views about Gautama Buddha. According to Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha was one of many enlightened people. They also believe that out of all these people Buddha was the divine one. Theravada Buddhism believes that Buddha was the only enlightened one and that there was no other than him.However they think that Buddha cannot be called as the divine one. The Mahayana school also believes that any person can achieve nirvana and that who ever follows the right path will be able to reach nirvana but Theravada school says that only monks and nuns can attain nirvana. These two schools of Buddhism are actually different interpretations of one basic belief. These are the earliest schools in Vietnam. Why did Mahayana become more accepted? It is because the Mahayana ritual and imagery attracted the Vietnamese. Its ceremonies were in conformity with original Vietnamese beliefs and rituals.This school of Buddhism also combined folklore with Taoist teachings. The enlightened ones in Buddhism were respected as animist spirits. In 7th century C. E, Mahayana school became a little more developed. It was then called Vajrayana. This had an influence of Hinduism also but had similar teachings as of Mahayana. The aim of Vajrayana is the same as that in Mahayana, that is to attain Buddhahood, but the tantric practices showed a quick way to achieve this end . BUDDHISM BEFORE UNIFICATION Before the country was unified, Buddhism was the state religion. When the communist gained power, Buddhism religion came under continuous hostility.Later, the Patriotic Buddhist Liaison Committee was formed. This committee tried to separate real collaborators from opponents. It promoted the idea that all Buddhist wanted to build a new society. This society was free from the feudal and neo-colonialist influences. This committee tried to prove that all Buddhist were involved in this committee and that they were trying to put a halt to independent Buddhist clergy’s activities to a halt. The communist in those times tried to pressure the monks and nuns to lead their life in such a way that they do not oppose their worldly desires.However the main aim of Buddhism is to lead a secular life, hence whoever disobeyed these communists was placed under house arrest or imprisoned. All their holdings were confiscated most of their religious places were turned in to public use. Trainings of monks and nuns were stopped. In 1981, a Buddhist church was formed in Vietnam which repre sented all Buddhists. Though Buddhists activities were taking place in some remote areas but each and every pagoda in the country had been destroyed. The main aim of these communists was to stop any religious growth of Buddhists.Whatever Buddhists remained were practicing their religion but no new monks and nuns were allowed to be ordained. When the Buddhist church was formed in 1981, it helped train a new generation of monks and nuns. Two Buddhists academy were formed one in Hanoi and another in Ho Chi Minh City. BUDDHIST EDUCATION The education system in Vietnam is of great importance as it declares the identity of a nation. This identity is also characterized by the culture and religion and is the core element in cooperation with other nations. The culture might makeup the identity of a nation.This culture is influenced by the education of the country and more importantly the higher education. From very early period Buddhists are concerned about education. In third century almost 9 Dhamma missionaries were sent to different areas of south East Asia in order to teach people about Buddhism . This is the oldest example telling Buddhists concern about Buddhist studies. These 9 Dhamma missionaries started a wave of missionaries. These were sent to Sri Lanka, Thailand and china etc. Today, due to these missionaries and Buddhist schools, Buddhists are present in very corner of the world.Vietnamese Buddhist education leaders are very much concerned about the global demands and needs of Buddhist education. In 1975, when the country got united, there already was a higher education institution in South; it was named Van Hanh University. This university was popular internationally and had close interaction with many other universities of the world. After 1980s two advanced schools were established in Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City. These schools trained monks and nuns at B. A level. Due to growing demand these two higher education schools were later turned in to universit ies.These now trained monks and nuns at not only undergraduate level but also postgraduate level. In 1997, one more Buddhist university was formed, this time in Hue city. Today, there are almost 40, 000 monks and nuns. There are almost six colleges and 31 high schools teaching Buddhism . In past few years many Buddhist colleges have been made. These Buddhist colleges give Buddhist education at B. A level. Many monks and nuns have been sent to other countries like India, China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and United States, in order to have higher education. These students come back with PhDs and master degrees.This will help improve the quality of education and increase the number of teaching staff in the country. These students not only spread the good name of Buddhism but also help impart their knowledge to other Buddhist students in Vietnam. Though Buddhism is present in every corner of the world and is considered on of the global religions, it has never tried to alter or threaten th e cultures and traditions of any place. The main reason for this is that Buddha’s original teachings never tried to alter anyone’s culture. It was with the doctrine of dependent origin (Paticcasamuppada).They have a general formula which says that nothing exists independently. Moreover, the Chinese Hua Yen school believes in the theory of totalism. This theory says that all the things in the universe have their own qualities. These are fully present within or without Dhamma. Hence, we can say that Buddhists studies believe that all existence in the world is interdependent regardless of their faith, nation or religion. This attitude of Buddhist studies has helped Buddhism spread throughout the world. Education can be called a tool which helps a human being grow, transform and learn.Education in many areas of the world is a social liability, but never can we see that it illuminates the light of truth and goodness like Buddhist education. The prime responsibility of Dhamm a schools is to transform a character. A person has values which are responsible for his character. These values come from ideals. Buddhist educators determine these ideals and teach students about a proper Buddhist life. There are five qualities that Buddhism education brings from the teachings of Buddha. The first one is concerned with emotions of a human. Second is related to education and wisdom.Others relate to better living styles like avoid killing, stealing, sexual abuse and drinking. The Buddhist education transforms a character in real terms. The character and intelligence, both are tried to be balanced. The entire Buddhist education comes from the studies of Buddha, who is the supreme teacher. All of the studies root from saddha, which is the faith in triple Gem. Depdnding upon these studies the students are taught according to the five rules. The students should know the rules, their reason and their appliance in daily lives. Most importantly, they should appreciate all these rules and believe in them.The students should know what is generosity and self sacrifice. These are essential elements that help the students overcome their worldly desires, their selfishness and greed. These five moral rules are dependent on each other. A student can gain by suta, which is by extensive reading of Buddhism texts. According to Buddhist studies the knowledge of a person is dependent on his inside belief of truth i. e. Dhamma. Calm and insight are the two main elements of any Buddhist teaching. In Buddhist education tasks and wisdom are dependent on each other. A student can attain wisdom by deep investigation, discussion and intelligence.This wisdom was the basic instruments which lead Buddha to salvation. This wisdom is the crown of all educations of Buddhism. Without wisdom, education is incomplete. Before French, people were chosen based on their education. These were officials known as â€Å"mandarins†. Learning was very important in those times. It w as not just education but it lead a person to intellectual understanding, social standing, wealth and power. According to Buddha himself, â€Å"There arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, understanding, and light . † Today, Buddhist monasteries still give Buddhist education to scholars.Buddhist relics are found all over Vietnam. These relics indicate that there were Buddhists present there in one time or the other. Religious education was provided to masses, and every nook and corner of Vietnam had places for Buddhist education. During rainy seasons the monks rested in viharas, which was also their place of meditating. The Stupa is also a place where Buddhist education can be taught. Usually in a stupa there is a large place which can hold the teacher student class. Sometimes there are stone benches and a place on the wall used as a writing board.Sometimes there are cubicles which are all around the hall. In olden days Buddhist scholars were taught in stupas. The academic da y in a Buddhist school starts with paying of obeisance to Buddha. â€Å"Siddham namah† is recited till today and it means â€Å"I bow to Buddha †. Older Buddhists usually write these words when starting to write any text. Vietnamese Buddhists are trying hard to encourage people to learn Buddhism. They are conveying the message of peace as Buddhism is a religion of peace and mental development. Buddhism has contributed a lot to Vietnam’s development.Buddhists monks are brought together from inside and outside the country. VBS, also known as Vietnam Buddhist Sangha is the only representative of Buddhism in Vietnam . They have worked very hard in order to spread and teach Buddhism. Today there are almost 15,000 worship places in Vietnam and 10 million Buddhist followers. Almost 40,000 monks and nuns have studies Buddhism. Though there were a few schools in the country and only one Buddhist institute names Van Hanh in Ho Chi Minh City. Today there are four institute s, six colleges and 31 high schools which teach Buddhist education.Almost 200 monks and nuns went abroad to study Buddhism. Each and every one of them either got a PhD or a master’s degree. Many thousand students are studying Buddhism in Vietnamese schools. VBS runs almost 1,000 classrooms for disadvantaged children. There are almost 36 Buddhist orphanages all across the country. Almost 10 vocational training schools have been built by VBS. These schools train people free of charge. Buddhist education system is indeed prospering and when a nation’s education system is that well it certainly has an impact on other walks of life also.Buddhists Monks and nuns organize a large number of humanitarian works. They have campaigns to raise funds for flood victims, build charity houses and provide medical care to the poor and disabled. Over past 5 years VBS has raised almost $25 million for charity works. Due to Buddhists scholars going abroad for learning, there has been a deep integration of Buddhist education in the international economies also. Many Buddhist students from all over the world come to Vietnam to study Buddhism. It ahs become an international arena and attracts Buddhist scholars from all over the world.Though Vietnam is a poor country with low per capita income yet it has one of the highest literacy rates. The literacy rate in Vietnam in 1997 was 92%. There are over 2 million pupils all over the country. In 2000, the budget share for education was almost 15%, out of which almost 80% was paid to the teachers . In 2008, Birth anniversary of Buddha will be held in Vietnam for the first time. Already almost 100 countries have registered so far. Indeed Buddhist education in Vietnam has opened the gates to the world’s community. People now from all over the world come to Vietnam to study religion.Vietnamese education system is one of the oldest and yet most advanced. Though there were no universities teaching Buddhism as a subject, today there are several universities which have Buddhist studies as their main subjects. CONCLUSION Buddhism is one of the most important religions of the World and has become one of the fastest spreading religions also. The materialistic nature of human is the root of all evil and as Buddhism shows human that there existence is not for these worldly pleasures but for the attainment of nirvana, it is becoming popular.More people are now turning to Buddhism. These people want to find the true spiritual reason for the existence of humans. These spiritual values are one major thing that all other western religions lack. An innovation and reformation is occurring in all the study areas of the world. Globalization is becoming a new trend. Buddhists students are also not confined to Vietnam alone, but they go to many other countries in order to educate themselves. These students then come back and teach many other students who are eager to learn Buddhism.Due to new trends, Vietnam has also refo rmed its educational structures and strategies in order to conform it to global changes. Buddhism as a whole has under gone structural changes in higher education so that Buddhist universities can reach international standards . Many scholars suggest that educational institutions teaching Buddhism in Vietnam should have and entrepreurial structure but others say that a heuristic approach would help more. Here is a list of some Vietnamese Universities giving Buddhist education . †¢ Ho Chi Minh City College for Buddhist Studies, Thien Minh Temple, Do Xuan Hop†¢ Hanoi College for Buddhist Studies , Non Nuoc Temple, Xa Phu Linh, Huyen Soc Son, Ha Noi. †¢ Hue College for Buddhist Studies, Bao Quoc Temple,Hue. †¢ Can Tho College for Buddhist Studies, Chua Buu An, Quan Ninh Kieu, Can Tho †¢ Lam Dong College for Buddhist Studies, Linh Son Temple, 120 Nguyen Van Troi. Da Lat †¢ Ba Ria – Vung Tau College for Buddhist Studies, Dai Tong Lam Monastery. Tan Th anh. Ba Ria Vung Tau †¢ Bac Lieu College for Buddhist Studies, 3/234 Tinh lo 38, P. 5, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau †¢ Advanced School for Dharma Dissemination, Hoa Khanh Temple, 215 Phan Van Tri, Binh Thanh, HCMC†¢ Khmer Theravada Academy for Buddhist Studies, Pothisomron Temple, O Mon, Can Thos References Asia Recipe. (2000). Vietnam Education. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://asiarecipe. com/vieteducation. html Brough, John. (n. d). Gandhari Dharmapada. India (n. p). B. Seshagiri Rao. (n. d) Andhra Karnata Jainism, Madras Dan, Nhan. (2007). Vietnam Buddhist Sangha on journey with nation. The Buddhist Channel. International Association of Buddhist Universities (2007). List of universities and colleges. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://www. iabu. org/ListOfUniversity. aspxLang, Nguyen. (n. d. ). History Of Buddhism in Vietnam. Viet Nam Phat Giao Su Luan Marginson, S. and Rhoades, G. (2002). Beyond National States, Markets, and Systems of Higher Education: A Glonacal A gency Heuristic, Higher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The Buddhist society. (2007). Schools and Traditions; spread of Buddhism. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. thebuddhistsociety. org/resources/index. html The Buddhist World. (2007) The Buddhist Schools. (n. p). Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. buddhanet. net/e-learning/buddhistworld/vietnam-txt.htm Truyen, Chanh Tri Mai Tho (n. d). Buddhism in Vietnam. Vietnam news agency (2007). Vietnam Buddhist sangha in journey with the nation. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://www. vnagency. com. vn/Home/EN/tabid/119/itemid/227191/Default. aspx Vietnam News (VNS). (2006). 2006 a significant year for Buddhists. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://vietnamnews. vnagency. com. vn/showarticle. php? num=01REL270106 Van Hein, Vietnam. (2001) Vietnamese culture. Education. .Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. saigoninfo. com/vanhoa/education. php

Exam questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

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To what extent might Globalization be seen as disadvantageous to the world in which we live - Essay Example There are several severe disadvantages as well and they include: The first disadvantage that talks about flow of manpower from developing countries to the developed countries is a phenomenon that many developed countries have witnessed. Countries like US, UK, France, Germany, and other developed countries have witnessed a flurry of demands of visas from people from developing countries who want to immigrate to them for better opportunities and lifestyle. Now, this puts pressure on the employment levels and many people might lose their jobs. This specifically applies to the economic situation prevailing now as the unemployment is ruling through the roof and is in vicinity of 10 percent in the US. Another problem is that of the drop in wages and salaries that people in developed countries might have to witness as a consequence of cheap labor entering into their countries. Another big disadvantage of Globalization is the something that the world is witnessing these days. This will be best explained in one of the points to follow. There is a sharp drop in growth of countries with a drop in growth of the Unites States. Also, the countries are facing a sharp liquidity crisis because of the subprime crisis of the US.The subprime crisis started with the subprime lenders lending at higher rates than usual to the borrowers with bad economic history and lesser ability to pay back. The subprime lending functions on the principle of no collateral and higher interests. There debt instruments are then traded and are passed on to other banks or institutions which are ready to take them for the higher interest they get out of them. Effects of the crisis on the US and World Economies and Recent Shutdowns Due to the passing on of the debt instruments some prominent hedge funds have failed to declare their current asset values. The problem has led to a total crunch of liquidity in the US. The markets witnessed BNP Paribas announce that it had frozen 3 of its hedge funds due to evaporation of liquidity, totaling around 1.6 billion pounds. The reason was that, it was not possible for the bank to value units of the funds due to the affect of the US subprime market on them. The funds contained the bundles of subprime loans, the demand for which have fallen drastically over the last few months. Banks around Europe feared a total liquidity crunch as they feared that they might run out of cash to sustain day to day lending. ECB went to the extent of injecting 155 billion pounds to ease the system of. Investors around the world started backing off

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Application of Findings to the Nursing Process Research Paper

Application of Findings to the Nursing Process - Research Paper Example For example, work interventions (WIs) have been attributed to primary concerns, such as direct patient care, and to secondary concerns, such as discourse between nurses during work. Hence, the findings of the article show that when assessing a patient it is advisable to include primary, as well as secondary factors to come through with a complete picture. 1.2. Diagnosis The diagnosis carried out in the current research presents a twofold approach that addresses immediate, as well as long-term concerns. The research has highlighted that nurses face WI’s in a far greater proportion than expected; this may lead to unsatisfactory patient care problem that needs immediate focus and attention to be resolved. Issues that may require immediate focus include WIs due to direct and indirect patient care, engagement by patient’s family, etc. Furthermore, the research has diagnosed that a long-term approach is required to deal with nurse’s habits, such as conversing with each other during work or paying little more than normal attention to the task after a WI. In doing so, the current research has accounted for immediate, as well as long-term, focuses that conform to the nursing process. 1.3. ... However, the research presupposes that this may not be possible in each given healthcare setting so localized solutions may be required. Steps related to more long-term issues, such as changing the working habits of nurses, can be taken in small phases involving training, monitoring and self-assessment. The current article is specific about the measures required, as well as provides measures that can be implemented practically to make a difference. This, in turn, conforms to the outcomes/planning element of the nursing process. 1.4. Implementation Implementation as per nursing process requires the utilization of a care plan so that sustainability of care can be achieved. The current article outlines different methods to achieve sustainability of greater nursing care by reducing WIs, but no single plan has been chalked out for implementation. Instead, the current article mentions that actual implementation plans will differ by the exact healthcare setting in use, although vague implem entation steps have been outlined, as mentioned in the previous section. 1.5. Evaluation The current article does not provide highly concrete or detailed evaluation plans but does refer to them indirectly. In terms of nursing process, evaluation serves as effective feedback to modify the overall care plan continuously. Given that the findings of the current article apply in different forms to different healthcare settings, it can, therefore, be expected that their evaluation plans will also be different. However, there is little deniability that in these settings the evaluation criterion will still revolve around the central concept of WI. 2. Utilization of Findings by Students and Practicing Nurses Given the fact that WIs are a common part of the work

Nature and Management in Different Countries Essay Example for Free

Nature and Management in Different Countries Essay Terrorism is a war that has been waging on for more than what the general American population knows about – what makes terrorism a very close reality and a household name is the fact that in the last few years, terrorists are bringing the smell of fear and death closer to the erstwhile protected US domestic landscape through a very lethal weapon: suicide bombers. Times have changed, and the terrorists are getting bolder and bolder, so they say, but some things remain the same, and that includes the nature of suicide terrorist groups, how they are managed by their leaders and how things are just as much the same as it was in the past, as it was in the other countries were suicide terrorist activities were felt earlier, harder, harsher prior to the onslaught of these breed of freedom fighters in the collective US consciousness. Suicide terrorist groups, like any other organization, is a complex maze which can only be treaded successfully through the use of human resource management tools, not very far from the management paradigm and approaches that business groups and other non-violent groups use, since the key to the sustenance of suicide terrorist groups, ironically, is the efficiency of the management to ensure that they always have people who wants to die and to kill in the name of satisfying the greater goal and the greater good. People who are living in a place and in a time characterized by commercialism and consumerism of television ads and product promotions about how to stay beautiful and live longer, about how to look better and have better skin and hair condition, about means and ways to battle diseases and extend lives a little longer people, who, in short enjoys life to the full extent, may find it difficult to understand how there are those who unlike them can just lay down their lives to die, living everything that the material world still has to offer. Suicide terrorists no doubt are a source of fear and anger as much as they are a source of wonderment, mystery and mystique. People ask themselves why these suicide terrorists do what they do. â€Å"What does motivate men and women to become suicide fighters? This is another difficult question to answer. Some of the suicide groups are motivated by religion, others by ethnic nationalism or by a combination of the two. In many cases, it is difficult to tell which motivation is the strongest (Williams, Waltrip, 2004, p.139). † Here, Williams and Waltrip points to the nature of suicide terrorists found in different parts of the world – that they are motivated by something greater than the preservation of their mortal life. The difference in motivation is not just found among different groups, but as low as every one single suicide terrorist and his/her personal reason for embarking on such kind of work and mission (Williams, Waltrip, 2004, p. 139). The modern media(television, Internet and movies) supplement whatever little knowledge the public has by providing either real or fictitious information through documentaries and television shows and movies that graphically illustrate suicide terrorists, their behavior, their nature and their characteristics, with the risk that sometimes they are far from telling the people the truth: e. g. take for example the notion of most people about the gender of a suicide bomber as male, when some historians say otherwise. â€Å"In general, males rarely become suicide terrorists, who are more typically young women and teenagers (Wessely, Krasnov, 2006, p. 112). † What this points out is that with the growth of global terrorism and the rise of suicide terrorist groups and their actions, the desire for knowledge about such aspect of modern day life also improves. Short history on suicide terrorism – In its most basic sense, suicide terrorism may refer to any act wherein the cause of terror of the people, community or society wreaks havoc, death and mayhem without regard for his or her own survival or even with the presence of risking sure death in the process. If this is the case, then suicide terrorism indeed goes way, way back – even during the times of barbarian warriors or even further back. But the concept of modern day suicide terrorism is younger, being around for just nearly three decades. â€Å"Apparently, the first terrorist suicide attack took place in Beirut on 15 December 1981. On that date a suicide driver reportedly drove an explosives-laden car into the Iraqi embassy, killing himself as well as 61 other persons and injuring more than 100. Iraq claimed that the attack was carried out by the Iranian and Syrian intelligence services. The use of suicide attacks as a systematic tactic, however, began only in 1983 (Bjorgo, 2005, p. 72). † Historians do not actually claim that this act triggered the new wave of in the style of terrorism, but this is one of the first one of its kind, probably the first documented act constituting the idea of modern day suicide terrorism by a suicide terrorist. Suicide attacks by suicide terrorist groups is not something new, especially not in the international level, since many groups decades ago were already resorting to this type of attack. The only difference is that now, there is an increased global presence and awareness about suicide terrorist groups and their actions because they are expanding their targets towards new locations, targeting a new set of people some of which are not even fully aware that they are just as susceptible to such attacks compared to the people living in other locations which are war torn and struggling from armed conflict. â€Å"Although suicide terrorism is not new to the world, it appears to have greatly expanded since early 2003 and has spread to regions where it was previously unknown. The primary increase was in the large number of suicide terrorists operating in Iraq, which until the war had not experienced this brand of terrorism (Fieldman, Shapir, 2004, p. 46).

The Channel Tunnel Engineering Project

The Channel Tunnel Engineering Project The Channel Tunnel (French: le tunnel sous la Manche), widely recognized as one of the worlds greatest civil engineering projects, is a 50.5km underwater rail tunnel connecting Folkestone, Kent in the UK with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais in France under the English Channel. Even though it began construction in 1988 and was opened in 1994, the idea to have a cross-channel tunnel was first mooted more than 200 years ago but did not materialize due to political, national security and cost considerations. However, with the tremendous increase in traffic growth, better and alternative means of communication, convenience and speed was necessary and hence the need for an alternative transport route was clearly evident. The need for such tunnel was further compounded with Britain joining the European Community and the cross-channel traffic doubling in the last 20 years (leading to the project), reflecting improved trading between the Britain and rest of Europe. The Channel Tunnel would also be a ble to provide an alternative competitive link between the transportation systems of the UK and France, providing both speed and reliability to freight deliveries. With the strong endorsement from the governments of both sovereigns, the decision to build the Channel Tunnel was thus made. In April 1985, the British and French governments issued a formal invitation to potential tenderers for the fixed Channel link and eventually the contract was awarded to the consortium Channel Tunnel Group Limited- France Manche S.A. (CTG/FM) (later renamed Eurotunnel). The Channel Tunnel, with the governments intention that it be privately funded and there would not be any government assistance or undertaking, was a build-own-operate-transfer (B-O-O-T) project with a concession. The project organization is shown in Figure 1. In this contract arrangement, Eurotunnel would be the owner cum operator, which was being funded by the banks and shareholders. The governments of UK and France were represented by the Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC), to which the Safety Authority and the Maitre dOeuvre (an independent technical auditor) would report to. The IGC would then make final engineering and safety decisions. TML (essentially split from CTG/FM so as to separate the roles of owner/operator and contractor) consisted mainly of five British contractors (Translink Joint Venture) and five French contractors (G.I.E Transmanche Construction) and would carry out the construction works for the Channel Tunnel in a design and build contract. Upon completion of the project, the British and French governments would award Eurotunnel a 55 (which was later revised to 65) year operating concession to repay the banks and shareholders. The Contract was officially signed on 13 August 1986 and the fixed rail was to be fully commissioned in 1993. The services offered by the Channel Tunnel include the Eurotunnel Shuttle (a shuttle service for vehicles), Eurostar passenger trains and freight delivery trains. TMLs contract was to design, build, and test and commission the fixed rail tunnel. The Channel Tunnel (Figure 2) was designed to have three concrete-lined bores approximately 50km long, with 37.9km undersea and the rest under land at either ends of the English (Cheriton near Folkstone) and French (Pas-de-Calais village of Frethun) terminals (Figure 3). Two of the running tunnels were designed to have an internal diameter of 7.6m while the third was a 4.8m service tunnel running midway between the two and connected to them via 3.3m diameter cross passages at 375m intervals. 2m diameter piston relief ducts connecting the main tunnels at 250m spacing were built to prevent the accumulation of differential air pressures and aerodynamic resistance. To facilitate operations and maintenance, four crossover caverns were built between the two terminals to allow trains to cross between the running tunnels. Two crossovers were laid close to the terminals while the other two were under the seabed , effectively dividing the tunnel into three approximately equal lengths. Figure 4 below shows the main phases of the project. Two separate rail tunnels were chosen instead of a single large twin-track rail tunnel because this could minimize construction risk while at the same time enhance operations, maintenance and safety. The diameters were finalized after design analysis, development and optimization studies, taking into consideration the operation and support, speed and cost of construction. The service tunnel provided access between the running tunnels during normal and emergency situations and was equipped with a guided transport system. It was also where the water and pumping mains run and functioned as a fresh air supply duct to the tunnels in normal working condition. In addition, the service tunnel would function as a lead tunnel during construction which allowed the workers and engineers to assess and ascertain the uncharted ground conditions before advancing the main tunnels. Basing on the existing geotechnical investigations, past tunneling expeditions and two additional geotechnical and geophysical surveys carried out by TML on the English Channel along the proposed tunnel line, it was ascertained that there was a distinct sub-unit of the Lower Chalk layer known as the Chalk Marl running continuously between the two terminals. Chalk Marl, made up of alternating bands of marly chalk and limestone, was found to be the best tunneling medium as it was essentially impermeable (due to its high clay content) and provided good short term stability under excavation, thus minimizing the number of supports required (Figure 5). It was designed to be bored in the bottom 15m of the Chalk Marl layer to minimize the ingress of water from the fractures and joints, but above the Gault clay which is susceptible to swelling when wet, imposing high stresses on the tunnel lining. The chalk marl strata dipped gently at less than 5o with smaller displacements of less than 2m d ue to faulting towards the UK side; whereas the strata dipped severely towards the French side (up to 20o) with much larger displacements of up to 15m (Gueterbock, 1992). Chalk at the French side was also harder, more brittle and fractured. This thus led to the use of different tunneling methods on the English and French sides. The seaward and landward bores for all three tunnels on the UK side began at Shakespeare Cliff. Construction traffic would enter the tunnel via a new inclined access (Adit A2) at the Lower Shakespeare site, while worker access was built via a shaft driven to the tunnel level from the Upper Shakespeare site (Gueterbock, 1992). Due to the fast construction time required and the relatively dry chalk marl at the UK side, it was assessed that the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was most suitable for the UK tunnels. One feature of the NATM was the interlinking of design, construction method, sequence and plant and the success of this method depended on the continuous integration of these elements by the tunneling engineers. Six TBMs were used to drive the UK tunnels spanning a total distance of 84km. The TBMs were operated on an open-face mode with a front excavating section and a rear gripper unit which acted as a temporary anchor point when the cutting head drove forward at 1.5m inc rements (Anderson Roskrow, 1994). Excavation of the tunnel and erection of the tunnel linings were carried out concurrently. Depending on ground conditions, the thickness of the linings ranged between 380mm and 500mm. Expanded concrete lining was used for the UK tunnels where the unbolted lining was expanded against the excavated ground. Pads on the back of the lining allowed the formation of an annulus to be filled with grout to prevent water ingress (Byrd, 1996). Each 1.5m lining ring was made up of eight precast concrete segments with a key segment. Cast iron lining segments were only used in poor ground conditions. Over at the other side, the tunnel drives started at the shaft in Sangatte in France. Due to the highly fissured ground resulting in very wet conditions on the French side, a different type of TBM known as the Earth Pressure Balance Machine was used. The TBMs were designed to operate both in open and closed modes. Close mode is characterized by the sealing off of the machine from the spoil around it and the cutting head, thus keeping pressure on the dirt in front as it excavated and allowing the machine to work in the dry as the pressure in the machine was higher than the outside. The arrangement of seals on the TBM allowed it to withstand up to 10 atmospheric pressures. When the TBMs reached dryer and more favourable grounds, they could then switch to open mode. While precast sections were also used on the French side, the materials used were different owing to the different soil conditions: neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast-iron and high strength concrete (Ander son Roskrow, 1994). The French tunnels were made of six 1.4 to 1.6m wide segments plus a key segment. A total of 5 TBMs were employed on the French side, and the bores from the UK and France were to finally meet in the middle of the English Channel in the tunnel breakthrough phase. The Channel Tunnel project was huge by any standard, with a number of key factors that could potentially impact the parties involved: bi-nationality, private funding (thereby effectively transferring most of the financial risks to the contractors), schedule and cost. To stay attractive to investors and banks alike, the project had to meet the following priorities: minimum risk of cost overrun, minimum operating cost and maximum traffic revenue. It was recognized, from the outset, that the main challenge of the project was to resolve the logistical support associated with large scale tunneling and the fast-track nature of this project. The management, finance and technical challenges related to this project would be explored in the subsequent paragraphs. The first management problem encountered was the sourcing of the large number of manpower required for the construction of the Channel Tunnel. This was conducted against the backdrop of the booming construction industry where there was stiff competition for labour. As a result, TML scoured beyond France and UK for skilled labour including experienced engineers and tunnel miners. TML also set up a training scheme with Kent County Council and the Manpower Services Commission to prepare workers for the myriad of jobs available as the project progressed. The main constraint for sourcing talent was the high remuneration that accompanied them The second management challenge was to find a solution to dispose the huge quantities of spoil that boring 150km of tunnels would produce. The problem at Sangatte was solved quite easily as there was a suitable land dump near the construction site and spoil disposal was done by converting the tunnel spoil into a 50% slurry and then pumping it to the Ford Pignon dam above the site 3km away. However, there was very little space at Shakespeare Cliff and there was no suitable land dump nearby. Despite the fact that backfill amounting to 3.6M cubic meters of British spoil would be required at the later stage of construction, there was still a remaining 1.8M cubic meters of spoil that had to be disposed. Eurotunnel eventually found a solution which was to use the spoil to provide a flat area of land at the foot of the Shakespeare Cliff which would be landscaped and used for recreational activities. When environmentalists raised strong objections, Eurotunnel argued that huge logistical and traffic problems would result if the spoil were to be transported elsewhere. In addition, the spoil would be contained behind an expensive seawall of sheet piles and concrete designed to prevent the chalk fines from leaching into the sea. The constructed seawall, spanning 1795m long and up to 11.36m thick, was designed as a short term breakwater and a long term retaining structure. This land (made of spoil) was subsequently transformed into the Samphire Hoe Country Park. Another aspect of concern was the delivery of materials to the site. Whenever practicable, delivery was done mostly by rail (for speed and convenience) and the materials delivered include the precast concrete linings, sheet piles and aggregates. Next, another management challenge was the method of obtaining the large volume of concrete required. 442,755 concrete segments of the highest quality mixed from strong, un-reactive materials in 35 different sizes were required. They were designed to last 120 years subjected to loadings in the worst case scenarios under two separate limit states and had to resist seismic activities, be watertight and to maintain its structural integrity regardless of the loading type (Byrd, 1996). As it was apparent that no precast company could supply such segments to fulfill TMLs requirements, TML had to create its own precast yard at the Isle of Grain in Kent, producing segments of the strongest concrete. In addition, the decision to drive all the UK tunnels from a single worksite gave rise to complex logistics problems because it had to support five TBMs at any one time. They required 1000 precast concrete segments daily, together with other materials such as track, cables, pipes and vent ducts. Also, at least 18000m3 of excavated spoil had to be removed daily. This challenge was solved by the process of separation: personnel would enter the tunnel via the 110m deep shaft; spoil removed through Adit A1 on a 2400T/hr capacity conveyor and other materials transported on the five-line railway in Adit A2. Moreover, the three 50km-long tunnels had to be made an operational railway through the installation of catenary systems, cooling pipes, drainage, tracks among many others. Given the myriad of systems that had to be installed (e.g. 550km of drainage, fire and cooling system pipes, 1330km of cable fitted on the cable trays), TML had to manage more than 40 subcontractors competing for space on the tunnel delivery trains. The right equipment had to be supplied to the exact location at the right time; especially when the delivery trains take more than an hour to negotiate the deep ends of the tunnels and a missing item would have caused delay to the works. TML resolved this issue by running the tunnel works akin to a production line a materials controller was employed from the motor industry to ensure smooth work processes and led the coordination and planning efforts (Anderson Roskrow, 1993). Also, TML constructed 4 diagonal cross tunnels connecting the three main tunnels to allow the delivery trains to switch between the three during the services installation phase, thereby alleviating the difficulty of moving the materials and spoil to and fro the tunnel. Sourcing finances for the mega project was also one of the management challenges faced. Given that the initial estimation of the project cost to be around 5 billion pounds, a large amount of money was required to see the project through to completion. As the project had to be privately funded, Eurotunnel had to source beyond the national boundaries to secure investments. They therefore devised a financing scheme to help them tide the crisis: the scheme would provide for the cost of the tunnel to be financed by  £5 billion worth of bank loans, with additional  £1 billion equity from the owner, institutional investors and public offering. Preliminary equity financing would be raised in two stages (known as Equity 1 and Equity 2). Equity 1 worth  £47 million was raised by cash placement by the founding shareholders. Equity 2, worth  £206 million, came from both British and French investment institutions. They later came up with Equity 3, worth  £770 million, and raised it by w ay of public share offering through the Paris and London stock exchanges concurrently. The Channel Tunnel project was thus able to proceed. Perhaps one of the greatest management challenges was how to enable the French and British work closely together. Separated by 34km of sea, their cultures are very different. Moreover, the building codes and training (and thus the limit states of design) were different. It was a challenge bringing two different engineering styles together. To overcome this challenge, it was decided that both countries use their own design codes for their part of the channel. Gordon Crighton, a Scot, was brought in to lead the engineering team so that both the British and French would not have disagreements since both countries had good relations with Scotland. This enabled the engineering team to work cohesively together. When it came to the design parameters, both the French and the British had to compromise. For instance, the English wanted the service bore to be 4.5m in diameter, but the French wanted 5m. In the end they agreed to a diameter of 4.8m. Besides the need to overcome the challenges faced in project management, a number of technical challenges also had to be overcome. Firstly, keeping the machines on course was one of the most complicated technical challenges faced. While most tunnel miners use a high-tech satellite mapping system to chart the tunnel route, this system was not effective for the Channel Tunnel as it was too far underwater. Excellent and exact mapping was essential for if the British and French tunnels were to be misaligned even by a small margin, they would not be able to meet up as planned in the middle of the English Channel. Therefore, the engineers developed a high-tech laser guidance system. A red laser on the cutting head of the TBM would send a beam forward; hitting a control point which would relay the information to the computers onboard the service trains located behind the cutting head to help them stay on course. This system enabled both teams of TBMs to successfully stay on the intended cou rse and meet each other in the tunnel breakthrough. Another technical challenge was that the locomotives that were used to pull the tunnel lining segments and spoil trains broke down frequently under wet conditions. Under such conditions, the wheels of the locomotives lost traction and span on the slopes; and their electric systems were laden with salt moisture and often leading to malfunction and power failure (Byrd, 1996). Even though the locomotives were designed to be powered by a 500V DC overhead supply and the batteries were supposed to be recharged while moving in the underground development, they did not charge up due to the presence of water. This challenge was overcome by redesigning the locos. The locos weight was increased for better traction and much larger capacity batteries were installed. Improvements to the pantographs design were made. The increase in efficiency and lesser loco breakdowns made up for the corresponding increase in costs. Another technical challenge arose when the tunnels emerged from the underground tunnels up to the surface approximately 900 meters short of the terminals at the UK side. This was resolved where engineers employed three different tunneling methods to complete the tunnels via the difficult gault clay at Castle Hill. First, the NATM took the tunnel through the geologically challenging strata at Castle Hill; while at either side of the hill, cut-and-cover construction and top-down construction were used. Cut-and-cover work involved excavating the area and building the tunnel using RC boxes. Top-down construction (usually used in tight spaces) involved building the roof of the tunnel first before excavating the ground below it. The use of 3 different methods of tunneling within a short 900m stretch reflected the excellent engineering concepts used in this project. Fourth, following the geophysical and geotechnical surveys, the British anticipated that the soil stratum was mostly dry. They thus configured the TBM in open mode. However, they tunneled into unexpected micro-fissured chalk which was very permeable and very quickly incapacitated the TBM. Dry chalk started to give way to moist chalk and chunks of rocks started to fall from the crown and sides of the newly excavated bore (Andrew Roskrow, 1994). The circle was not sufficiently accurate from which the concrete lining could expand. Work was then stopped to ensure worker safety. Eventually, the TBM was modified in situ. A series of trailing fingers were installed behind the cutting head and spanned across the lap between the head and the last section of the lining (Gueterbock, 1992). These fingers, when sliding forward during boring, restrained the chalk while at the same time allowed the segments to be erected and grouted quickly. TML also applied extensive waterproofing to the machiner y and hoses to prevent them from further saltwater attack. Hence, the TBM started to make better progress and the delay was minimized. Other technical challenges and innovations include the removal of the TBMs that have completed the service tunnel. Stuck in the middle of the tunnel and under the sea, these TBMs were not able to move back up. While they could have been taken apart and removed piece-wise from the tunnel, it was undesired as this would incur high costs. This challenge was overcome by driving one of the TBMs slightly off the course of the tunnel and burying it into the chalk rock. This way, the other opposing TBM could drive forward out of the tunnel. The British TBM was the one chosen to drive off-course and buried. After it drove into the rock, it was sealed off and the tunnel wall was covered with concrete slab. The French TBM was thus able to move forward to the other side of the coast and be removed. This construction innovation enabled the contractor to save costs. For a project of this gigantic scale there was bound to be budget overrun and delays. The project entailed designing; building and commissioning the entire project in just seven years and be ready for opening in May 1993. This was not to be, as at the end of the project, the estimated budget overrun was 80% (total project cost reaching  £9.2 billion) and the official opening of the Channel Tunnel was May 1994, one year later then the contractual completion date. One cause of the delay was due to the passing of the Parliamentary Bill which was required for the commencement of the works. This was due to the objecting voices towards the building of the Channel Tunnel and the Bill could not be passed quickly enough. The delay took up most of the float that TML initially had and any further delay could severely impede the construction schedule. To overcome this difficulty, TML started preliminary site works like constructing the precast yard at the Isle of Grain and placing orders for the materials even before the Parliamentary Bill was passed. It also started a global search for manpower and engineering talents. Another cause of delay during the early days of construction on the French part was due to the financial collapse of one of the firms involved in building the TBM. However, the delay was reduced with the quick mobilization of the TBM at the huge Sangatte shaft which allowed the 400T TBM body to be lowered in one piece into the tunnel. On the British side, it was the unexpected wet ground conditions that caused the slowdown in tunneling works and resulted in a delay of more than 3 months. However, the engineers modified the TBMS by installing the trailing fingers behind the cutting head. Very soon the TBMs started to drive at record speeds. Third, the major cause of schedule delay was the dispute between TML and Eurotunnel. The contractors claim that Eurotunnel owed it  £1.45 billion for the ME systems installed in the tunnel was the main cause of dispute. This figure was more than twice the figure stated in the Contract, which Eurotunnel insisted that the sum owed was less than  £900 million (Byrd, 1996). The protracted legal battle between the two entities delayed the project. TML decided to finance its own works while Eurotunnel sourced for funds, which potentially would push the project completion date further back. In the end, Eurotunnel struck a deal with TML where TML would need to hit a series of milestones over the months in 1993 to handover the project to Eurotunnel by Dec 1993. In return, Eurotunnel would give an advance payment of  £235million to TML so that the latter would not run out of funds. This incentive enabled TML to push for progress and minimize delay. There were few causes of budget overruns. Firstly, the original start to completion duration was a mere 7 years, meaning that the project had to move from design development to completion in that length of time. As a result, many design problems (e.g. open mode TBMs used by the British) were not identified and resolved at the start of the project and no provisions were made for these provisions in the initial cost estimates. Eurotunnel thus had to source for additional funds for the project. Secondly, due to the competitive nature of the project, CTG/FM had to cut their cost estimates to the bare minimum in order to make a successful bid. This was made with the knowledge that the competing consortia would be evaluated on financial standing thus the rationale for lowering the profit margins. The subsequent cost increase was blamed on delays from the parliamentary process and early financing problems. Thirdly, the budget overrun was caused by the increase in costs and number of materials required for the project. Even though TML had planned to line the tunnel with cast iron segments rather than concrete in wet ground as they were more watertight, they had not expected the UK TBMs to also hit poor ground (contrary to geotechnical analysis results). The required amount of cast iron had already exceeded the total amount of cast iron originally estimated when this happened and cost increase was inevitable. TML tried to reduce costs by hastening the tunneling process and modifying the TBMs. While the project was delayed many times due to boardroom disputes and unexpected site conditions, innovative ideas were put into practice that helped to increase productivity. For instance, due to the poor ground conditions and water ingress at the UK side, TML had wanted to use cast-iron linings which at that time were already over-budgeted. However, innovative ideas led to the modification of the tunnel linings, known as hybrid linings where areas of high stresses would be taken by the iron while the bulk of the lining ring was still made of concrete. Not only did these linings save TML close to  £20million, it also reduced three months on the critical path. In addition, improvements and modifications to the TBMs were made, their lining erectors and spoil removal systems extensively changed, their electronic systems simplified and waterproofed. The TBMs performance improved tremendously and soon they were breaking world records for tunneling rates. Miners and workers were also i ncentivized for good work progress so that their morale remained high. Their pay was reviewed to remain market- competitive. Eurotunnel also formed a policing arm known as the Project Implementation Division to keep check on the construction progress and on TML to do more to stay on the scheduled timetable. The total death toll for this project was increasing at an alarming rate towards 1990. Safety at the construction sites were put under intense scrutiny. This prompted TML to embrace DuPonts safety practices and principles, and made a few innovations to its safety plan. Firstly, a series of mainly one-to-one audits were carried out by the foremen and supervisors on the workers at work. These were no-risk audits, and the auditee was encouraged to tell the auditor of his observed actions that were less safe than desired and was also encouraged to make safety suggestions. Completed audits identifying the auditor (but not the auditee) were analyzed by a senior line manager and summarized for the local line manager to identify trends and plan follow up actions (Byrd, 1996). As a result, many previously unidentified safety issues were found and subsequently resolved or mitigated. Secondly, safety prizes were awarded, through lottery, to individuals or team of personnel who managed to achiev e 25000 of accident-free work activity. Thirdly, poster campaigns were carried out to address safety issues such as track safety and proper PPE. These campaigns were complemented by other form of media such as safety notes in payslips, on site video presentations and toolbox briefings to all employees. These safety practices resulted in zero deaths for the next two years of construction. To conclude, the Channel Tunnel was a mammoth privately-funded project in its own right. It was of no mean feat for the completion of a project involving 2 countries separated by a sea 34km long and both being traditionally rivals. Even though it was completed a year late and at least cost overrun of at least 80%, the Channel Tunnel can still be considered a success, this in view of the management, technical and financing challenges faced by the parties throughout the project. Apart from the famous senior management battles and arbitration between the owner and contractor, it must be noted that the management and technical innovations led to an increase in productivity and should be used as a reference for future projects.

The Bridge :: essays research papers

Sweat poured down my rugged unshaved face, bathed in my camouflage, and dripped on my MP5 sub-machine gun. As I ran for my God-forsaken life I spit out my fresh chew and screamed at my division sniping in the nearby trench, â€Å"GET THE HELL OUT! IT’S GONNA BLOW!!† Once I gained their attention it was too late. BAWOOSH! I tried to glance at my four other companions but I only caught a glimpse their distraught visages a split second before debris covered my sight and I was luckily blown forward from the impact of a Chinese high explosive grenade. My sniper division, was unluckily obliterated by it. I was knocked unconscious; barely gasping for air. Various thoughts filled my head†¦ A chunk of our team snipers wiped out within a second, including my long time friend PFC Ransom, two year Green Beret sniper specialist, I use to drink Michelob with back in college before we got drafted. I almost forgot it was a couple days before it would be my birthday. I can’t believe the war was almost over because it seems like it has lasted for an eternity. How did I get knocked unconscious? I couldn’t even recall the face of my wife and the baby girl she gave birth to from what I read in her letter. I have to defend the bridge at all costs, but am I even alive?†¦But the only thing that ran through my head at the moment was how devastating the end of this skirmish between China and us it was and how it should’ve been. The conflicts between the U.S. and China that would last for a decade all started on April 1st, 2001 when U.S. a UP-403 spy plane collided with a Chinese F-8 fighter jet, killing the Chinese pilot and tearing one of the wings of the spy plane as it safely landed into a Chinese air field. As Chinese officials demanded an apology for the mishap, they kept the crew of 24 as hostage for eighteen days forming one of the most critical standoffs in U.S. history. After the ten days elapsed, a cataclysmic event shocked the world. On April 19th, 2001, the Chinese army unloaded clip after clip from their AK-47 rifles into the 24 crew members, starting a war that would last for 10 years. Naval destroyers invaded China’s east coast 10 days later. D-Day II a week after that unloaded 2 million soldiers into Beijing after primary cities were bombed by B-52 bombers carrying hydrogen missiles.

court system Essay -- essays research papers fc

The basic role of the Canadian court system is to deliver justice between two individuals or two individuals and the state. There are four levels of court in Canada. Provincial courts are the lowest in terms of power. They handle most of the day to day cases. The next court in terms of power is the provincial and territorial superior courts. These courts take care of the more serious crimes that are admitted into the system, and can also take appeals from provincial court judgments. Another that has the same amount of power as the provincial and territorial superior courts is the Federal Court. Next are the provincial courts of appeal and the Federal Court of Appeal. The court with the most power in Canada is the Supreme Court. All members of the judiciary in Canada, regardless of the court, are taken from the legal profession. Each province and territory has a provincial court. All cases involving either federal or provincial laws take place here. These courts don’t particularly have similar names, but they follow the same rules. Provincial courts deal with the most cases, most of which include: provincial regulatory offences most criminal offences, traffic violations, family law, young offenders. Private disputes involving money can also be dealt with at this level in Small Claims courts. As well, all preliminary inquiries take place before the provincial courts. Some provinces and territories have domestic violence court programs. These programs provide services to victims. There are specific courts set up for certain offences. The object is to address the needs of non-violent offenders who are charged with criminal offences. Youth courts handle cases that have someone with the age of 12-17 is charged with an offence. Depending on the age of the youth, different precautions are taken, for example privacy protection. Courts at either the provincial or superior court level can be designated youth courts. These courts are often referred to as inferior, but are only called that to show the difference in power between the other courts, and it’s ranking with them. The superior courts of each province and territory both have a court of general trial jurisdiction and a provincial court of appeal. Something different about these courts is that they have more power than just their own province. They have power over areas where the federal government is granted l... ...the lower courts, it can be 75 as well, or 70. The basic role of the Canadian court system is to deliver justice between two individuals or two individuals and the state. This is achieved through four levels of court. These are the provincial courts, the provincial and territorial superior courts as well as the Federal Court, the provincial courts of appeal and the Federal Court of Appeal and the most powerful, the Supreme Court. All judges are appointed by the Federal government and the provincial government. All of this is done for the needs of the public. Works cited Cassel, Blakes. "What is the Canadian court system like." Doing Buisness in Canada. Blake Cassel and Graydon LIP. 07 Jan. 2003 . "The Canadian Justice System and Law Enforcement." Canadian Embassey. 12 Jun. 2004 . "The Court System." Justice. 09 May. 2005. . "Overview of Canadian Law." Canadian Law Site. 12 Oct. 1999 . "Canada's Court System." Canada's Court System. 20 Sep. 2002 . MacKenzie, Norman . Canada and the Law of Nations. Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1999. "Citation Machine." The landmark Project. Landmark. Jan. 2004 .

Essay --

Furniture design is particularly dependent on trends. During a period of time, the design or general appearances of furniture design changes over the course of history which was influenced by architectural style. Therefore, there are many different types of furniture design available in the market nowadays including wall kitchen cabinets. Most wall cabinets are simply for storage but nowadays, people require durable, sturdy, long lasting yet affordable furniture with improved functionality. At present, in order to have the above mentioned qualities dictated by changing customer demand it is necessary to develop new types of furniture with improved functionality. The desire in furniture style to create new designs or different appearances led to the development of new manufacturing methods and materials used. The design and material of furniture have to meet the customer and manufacturer requirements (Petutschingg & Ebner, 2005). Kitchen cabinet is among the most important items for a home. Cabinets are available in many varieties of styles and design and are mainly used for storage...

Adaptive Memory Essay

The aim of this particular study was to research adaptive memory and attempt how best to explain how this â€Å"adaptive memory† works. In this experiment 252 first year students were the participants. According to which tutorial group they were in, the participants were given a scenario, with the scenarios being: * Ancestral Hunter * Modern Hunter * Future Hunter Both the Ancestral and Future hunter scenarios contained 80 participants while 92 were placed in the Modern Hunter group. Participants were asked to read a scenario according to which group they were placed in (i. e. Modern scenario for Modern Hunter group etc) following this they were asked to read and rate a list of thirty-five words based on their relevance to their scenario. This list of words was shown on a screen for five seconds each. Following this exercise, participants were then asked to complete a number task in which they were given a list of twelve numbers, each being a seven digit number, where each number was shown on the screen for one second. See more: Sleep Deprivation Problem Solution Speech Essay After this, participants were given ten minutes to attempt to recall as many words as possible from the original thirty-five words they had rated. The results showed encoding was most effective for the future hunter scenario. Introduction. A proposition made by evolutionary psychologists is that our cognitive processes have been shaped and tuned by way of adaptation. One situation is that of survival. The ultimate goal is for humans to survive and reproduce, because of this humans have adapted and evolved to heighten their senses in a situation where their survival is threatened. Items can be processed more deeply and remembered for longer when the context of the word given, seems to be a scenario in which the mind believes it needs to actively fight for its own survival. One of the most interesting findings into this theory is the results of Nairne, Thompson and Panderiada’s (2007) experiment. The findings of their experiment revealed life of an encoding task that results in higher levels of free recall than those found with past tested methods. The theory of levels of processing framework states that retention of the given word varies in relation to the depth of which the word in question is processed (Craik & Tulving, 1975). The series of experiments performed by Craik and Tulving found that the participants would process a word better when matching to a related question. This experiment attempts to find how adaptive memory can be best explained. Three different scenarios were used to encode a list of words. It is hypothesised that the scenario in which survival is the ultimate goal, is where the words will be more salient and hence acquire a higher retention of the words listed. Method. Participants were 252 first year undergraduate students undertaking psychology at the University of New South Wales. The experiment was completed during tutorials as a group experiment. The experiments took place according to the tutorial group, and were not performed at the same time. Design. The independent variables in this experiment were the scenarios given to the participants and the list of words and numbers presented to participants after they had completed the scenario. Materials and Design. Stimuli used were 35 concrete nouns selected at random from a list of words which were generated by submitting a range of 400-700 for frequency, concreteness, imageability and meaningfulness criteria in MRC Psycholinguistic Database and twelve seven digit numbers. Procedure. Depending on which tutorial group the student was in, participants were asked to read a survival scenario. In total there were three different scenarios given; Ancestral Hunter, Modern Hunter and Future Hunter. After the participant read through the given scenario they were asked to rate a list of 35 words for relevance. Each word was shown on a screen for a total of five seconds. Following this memory task, the students were then shown 12 seven-digit numbers on the screen, each number being shown for ten seconds. After being presented all twelve, they were given ten seconds to list as many numbers as they could remember. Following this task they were given ten minutes to attempt to recall as many words as possible from the list of thirty-five words given to them to rate after each scenario.

Happiness: The Key To Life Essay

Hap-pi-ness: the quality or state of being happy. One crucial standard for living is being able to be happy. Happiness can be found in an numerous amount of ways. It can be found by buying inanimate items that help us better our life or it can be found with communicating with someone. To truly reach full happiness you need to recognize that everything in your life if good and accept that you can be happy with individuals that help shape your life. Many people feel as if they are unable to live without many of their precious belongings but, some would be happy to give them up or throw them away. It is extremely difficult to look face to face to someone and find an acceptable answer to the question â€Å" Can happiness be bought? †. Achieving happiness can be a very simple thing ; for instance the life of a cat. Cats do not have many possessions / items yet they seem very happy and enjoy their lives. Cats have a reliable friend and are constantly loved by someone or another cat. They have everything to be happy so why shouldn’t they be? This can relate to humans because not many people have the same items or electronics as others yet they are happy with the simplest of things. As an example; homeless people receiving a meal on thanksgiving while others just think its another holiday, another family meal. People feel or believe that they can buy happiness but, think about how long that one Martins 2 item keeps/ makes you happy. You spent all your money on a new outfit but, you realize you have no one to see it, do you still feel happy? Or would you feel better at a friends house and hanging out. Think about this: You bought a movie and watch it three times. First time your â€Å" ROLF† rolling on the floor dieing of laughter, second time it funny and by the third time you done, sick of it. Or even when you buy a need game, you play a couple of time than something new, better , more expansive comes along. You never get tried of the simplest things in life, that is true happiness. For instance, my grandma comes over my house and makes me her special hot chocolate because she thinks I’m too skinny. It warms your stomach and makes you feel like special and thankful for everything. You can have all the things in the world but, you will never be happy if you do not have anybody to share it with. If you have no one you feel you can trust of call your true friend buying items will not help fill that void in your life.â€Å"True friends can not be bought at any store and love is not sold in a bottle† but, it can happen and bring you so much happiness. These are things you can get with your heart, even people that are extremely poor or in debt find happiness in the people they love and friends that truly care for them. It is crazy what effect money has. If you can not get happiness with it than isn’t even worth all the money in the entire universe. To be happy, many people need to come to the realization that everything that has occurred in the present or past happened for a logical reason and that’s it has happened in order to make you a better human being. It does not only make you a better person but make you see how well off you have it or can be able to have it. Even though certain events in life can be Martins 3 difficult at a certain moment, people need to realize that you can learn from your experiences and learn to take what is good out of it. In the end, certain situations will help many strive for happiness. Happiness is not free, you need to work and earn it to keep it. To exceed fully happiness people need to go through rough times and happy times as well. Many need to learn how to get the best out of their surroundings. Many things in life go wrong or not how you expected it would turn out but, that does not mean you need to live in fear. You need to live your life to the fullest and be happy, have fun even if things do not always go as planned. People say the best kind of happiness you can feel is when you are in love with someone and you know that they love you back. Whether it is a relationship or just your friends, you care about them so much that you wish them the best in life and their own journeys. This is the purest form of happiness. When two individuals will do anything to make sure the other person is happy and you are as well, it is an unspoken agreement. Happiness may come and go like seasons but, in the end, every moment you have that is filled with happiness will be well worth the unhappy and happy times that you have once endured. Think of those times as milestones in your life. Those little times of being happy or sad are bringing you to the bigger picture in your life. Remember that happiness is a gift that can be and should be shared with everyone. Sure buying things can make you feel amazing for a couple of days or even hours but, in the end you will find greater / true happiness in the little, simplest everyday things that life offers.

The Trauma Radiography Procedure Health And Social Care Essay

Trauma skiagraphy is one process contain in medical imagination. It is rather exciting or nerve-racking for radiographers. For certain radiographers maybe it is really nerve-racking because there are a batch of unexpected instances that required a batch of technique to use during plants in exigency room. To guarantee that the injury skiagraphy is non nerve-racking the radiographer must ache and hold a batch of accomplishments plants in exigency room. First of all, I would to specify that the definition of injury is as sudden, unexpected, dramatic, forceful or violent actions. In United states the individuals which age around 34years old can take to decease when there are in trauma skiagraphy. This statistics excludes suicide and homicide-related decease. Trauma, homicide and self-destruction rank foremost, 2nd and 3rd severally as the taking causes of decease in individuals age 15-24 old ages. Emergency medical attention of 10 is difference between life and deceases when knowing or u nitintentional injuires occur. Many types of installations provide exigency medical attention runing from major, metropolitan centres to little outpatients clinics in rural country. The term traumatic centres signifies a specific degree of exigency degree of exigency attention as defined by American College of Surgeons Commision on Trauma. Trauma centre are categorized into four degrees of attention. Level 1 is the most comprehensive and flat 4 is the most basic. A degree 1 is halfway normally a university based centre, research installation or big medical centre. It provide the most comprehensive exigency medical attention available with complete imaging capablenesss 24 hours a twenty-four hours. All types of forte doctors are available on sites 24 hours a twenty-four hours. Radiographers besides available for 24 hours a per twenty-four hours. A flat 2 centre likely has all of the same specialised attention available but differs in that it is non research or learning infirmary and some forte phcsicians may non be available for 24 hours. Level 3 possibly located in smaller community where degree 1 and 2 attention is non available. Level 3 besides possibly did n't hold any forte but they are stand by to reassign patient to a larger injury centre. A degree 4 is halfway possibly is non in infirmary at all but instead a clinic or outpatient setting.these installations normally provide attention for minor hurts every bit good as offer stabilisation and arrange for transportation of more serious hurts to a larger injury centre. The trauma incident that is normally happen that is including blunt, explosive, perforating and heat consequence in hurts. The illustrations of blunt injury that is motor vehicle accident ( MVA ) , which includes bikes incidents and hits with prosaic, falls and aggravated assault. The penetrating injury is includes gunshot lesions, stab lesions, impalent hurts and foreign organic structure consumption or aspiration. Explosive injury causes hu rts by several mechanism including force per unit area daze moving ridge, high speed missile and Burnss. Nathan birnbaums possibly because by a figure of agents including of fire, steam and hot H2O, chemicals, electricity and cryopathy. Specialized Equipment Time is critical component in injury skiagraphy in salvaging the patients. To minimise the clip required to acquired diagnostic xray images many exigency room that is located an imaging equipment to guarantee the process can be done every bit speedy as possible. The injury radiogram besides must non to travel a batch the patient and required more maneuvering of the tubing and images receptor. Specialized injury equipment is design to supply for a greater flexcibility in xray tubing and Ir maneuvering. These equipment is to assist the patient and minimise the motion of the hurt patient while executing imaging process. Additionally the exigency room are equipped with specialised beds or stretchers that have movable tray to keep the IR. This moveble tray can let the used of nomadic radiographic unit and eliminates the demand and hazard of reassigning an injured patient to radiographic tabular array. Mobile skiagraphy is midely utilised in the exigency room.many patient will hold hurts t hat prohibit to reassign to a radiographic tabular array or their conditions possibly excessively critical to disrupt intervention. Trauma radiographers must be competent in managing nomadic radiographic units on about any portion of the organic structure and utilizes accoutrement devices needed to bring forth quality nomadic images. Mobile fluoroscopy units normally referred to as c-arm because of their forms are going more platitude in exigency room. C-arm are design to cut down fractured process, foreign organic structure localisation in limb and cut downing articulations disruptions. Positioning assistance are necessary in trauma skiagraphy. Spoges, sandbags and the originative used of tapes are frequently thee most utile radiographer tools. Most trauma patient is unable to keep the needed places as a consequence of strivings or impaired consciousness. Other patients can non be moved into proper places because to make so would worsen their hurt. Proper used of positioning assist ance is assist in speedy process to suit the patient conditions. Grids and IR holders are necessities since many projections required the used of a horizontal cardinal beam. Inspect grids routinely because harm grid will be frequently cause image artefact. Exposure Factor The of import that should be considers in taking images of trauma patient is gesture. The shortest possible exposure clip that can be set should be used in every process except when take a breathing technique is desired. Unconscious patient are unable to suspend respiration for the exposure. Conscious patient are normally in utmost hurting and unable to collaborate for the process. Radiographic exposure factor compensations possibly required when devising exposure through immobilisations devices like a spine board or backboard. Most trauma patient arrive at the infirmary with some type of immobilisations devices. Pathological factors besides should be see when puting proficient factors. For case internal hemorrhage in the abdominal pit would absorb a greater sum of radiation than a bowel obstructor. Positioning of the patient The primary challenge of the injury radiographer is to obtain high quality, diagnostic images on the first effort when the patient is unable to travel into the coveted place. Many methods are available to accommodate a everyday projection and obtain the coveted images of the anatomical portion. To minimise hazard of worsening the patient status, the xray tubing and IR should be place instead than the patient or the portion. For illustration place the the stretcher adjacent to the perpendicular bucky or unsloped tabular array every bit frequently as the patient status allows. This location enable accurate placement with minimum patient motion for cross-table sidelong images ( dorsal decubitus places ) on legion parts of the organic structure. Additionally the grid in the tabular array or perpendicular bucky is normally high ratio than those used for nomadic skiagraphy, so image contrast is improved. Another technique to to increase efficiency while minimising patient motion is to take all of the ap projections og the requested scrutinies, traveling superiorly to inferiorly. Then execute all of the sidelong projections of the requested scrutinies traveling inferiorly to superiorly. The method travel the xray tubing in the most expeditious mode. When taking radiogram to laocalize a perforating foreign object or slug, the entryway or issue lesions should be Markss with radiopaque marker that is seeable on all projections. Radiographer Role in Trauma Radiography The function of radiographer within the ER finally depends on the section protocol and staffing, every bit good as the extent of exigency attention provided by the installation. Regardless of the size of the installation the primary duties of radiographer in an exigency state of affairss include the followers ; Perform quality diagnostic imagination as requested. Practice ethical radiation protection Provide competent attention It is impossible to rank these duties because they occur simulataneously and all are critical to quality attention in Er. Diagnostic Imaging Procedure Producing a high quality diagnostic images is one of the more obviously functions of radiographer. A radiographer in the injury environment has the added duties to execute that undertaking expeditiously. Efficiency and productiveness are common and practicals ends for radiology section. Diagnostic imagination in ER is paramount to accurate timely and frequently life salvaging diagnosing. Radiation Protection in Trauma Radiography One of the most indispensable responsibilities and ethical duties of injury radiographer is radiation protection of the patient the members of the injury squad and ego. In extremely critical attention state of affairss members of the injury squad can non go forth the patient while imaging processs are being performed. The injury radiographer must guarantee the other squad members are protected from any unneeded radiation exposure. Common patterns should minimally include the undermentioned ; Close collimation to the anatomy of involvement to cut down spread Gonadal screening for the patients of child bearing age ( when making so does non interfere with the anatomy og involvement Lead aprons for all forces that remain in the room during the process Exposure factors that minimize patient dosage and spread radiation Announcement of hindering exposure to let unneeded forces to go out the room Considerations besides must be given to patients nearby stretchers. If there are less than 6 pess of the distance from the xray tubing, appropriate should be provided. Some of the greatest exposure to patient and medical forces are from fluoroscopic processs. If the c-arm fluoro unit is used in er particular safeguards should be topographic point to guarantee that exposure clip is kept minimal and all forces are have oning protective aprons. Patient Care As with all imagination processs trauma processs required a patient history. The patient may supply this, if he or she is witting or the attending doctor may inform you of the hurt and the patient position. If the patient witting, explicate what you are making in item and in term the patient can understand. Listen to the patient rate and mode of address which may supply penetration into his or her mental and emotional position. Make an oculus contact with the patient to supply comfort and reassurance. Keep in head that a trip to the ER is emotionally nerve-racking event, irrespective of the badness of hurt or unwellness. Radiographers are frequently responsible for the entire attention of the trauma patient while executing diagnostic imagination process. Therefore it is critical that radiographers invariably assess the patient conditions, acknowledge any mark of diminutions or hurt and study any alteration in the position of the patient conditions to the go toing doctor. The injury r adiographer must be good versed in taking critical mark and cognizing normal scopes, competent in cardiorespiratory resusicitation, disposal of O and covering with all types of medical exigencies. The radiographer must be prepared to execute these processs when covered by a standing physician order or section policy allows. Additionally the radiographers should be familiar with the location and content of the grownup and peadiatric clang carts and understand how to used suctioning devices. The familiar ABC air manner external respiration and basic support life technique must be invariably assessed during the radiographic process. Ocular review and verbal inquiring enables radiographer to find if the position of patient alterations during the process Common Injuries Happen Hypovolemic or hemorrhagic daze is medical status where there are abnormally low degree in blood plasma in the organic structure such that the organic structure is unable to decently keep blood force per unit area. Vasovagal reactions is besides called a vasovagal onslaught or situational faint. It is a physiological reaction of nonvoluntary nervous system or normal physiologic response to emotional emphasis. The patient may kick of sickness, flowers, experiencing lightheaded and loss consciousness for several seconds. Cerebrovascular accident is normally called a shot caused by thrombosis, intercalation or bleeding in the vas of the encephalon. Best Practice In Trauma Radiography Speed- injury radiographers must bring forth high quality images in shortest sum of clip. Celerity in executing a diagnostic scrutiny is excessively critical to salvaging the patient life. Many practical method that addition scrutiny efficiency without giving image quality. Accuracy – Injury radiographers must supply accurate images with a minimum sum of deformation and the maximal sum record item. Shortest and minimising the exposure clip and uncontrolled patient gesture. Quality – Quality does non hold to be sacrificed to bring forth an image rapidly. Make non fall into the trap of the patient status as an excuses for careless placement and accepting less than high quality images. Positioning – Careful safeguards must be taken to guarantee that public presentation of the imaging process does non worsen the patient hurts. The aureate regulation of two projections at he right angle from one another still applies. Equally frequently as possible, place the tubing and the IR instead than the patient, to obtain the coveted projections. Practice Standard Precaution – Exposure to the bloody and organic structure fluids should be expected in the injury skiagraphy. Wear baseball mitt, mask and the gown when appropriate. Place IR and sponges in nonporous plastic to protect from the organic structure fluids. Wash hands decently and maintain all equipment Is clean and ready to used. Immobilization- Never take any immobilisation device without doctors order. Supply proper immobilisation and support to increase patient comfort and minimise hazard of gesture. Expecting – Anticipating required particular projections or diagnostic processs for certain hurts makes the radiographer critical portion of the ER squad. For illustration patient necessitating surgery by and large required an xray of the thorax. Fracture of pelvic girdles frequently required cystogram to find the position of urinary vesica. Bing prepared to execute these scrutiny rapidly and understand the necessity of the extra images instill assurance in and creates an grasp for the function of the radiographer in exigency scene. Attention To Detail – Never leave a trauma patient or any patient unattend during imaging process. The patient status may alter at any clip and it is radiographer duty to observe these alterations and describe them instantly to go toing doctor. If you are unable to treat images while keeping oculus contact with your patient, call for the aid. Person must be with the injured patient all the clip. Attention To Department Protocol And Scope Of Practice – Know the section protocol and pattern merely within your competency and abilities. The range of pattern for radiographer varies from province to province and from state to state. Be certain to analyze and understand the range of your function in exigency scene. Do non supply or anything by oral cavity. Always ask the doctor before giving the patient anything to eat or imbibe no affair how relentless the patient may be. Professionalism- Ethical behavior and professionalism in all state of affairss and with every individual in demand of all wellness attention professional but the conditions encounter in the ER can be peculiarly complicated. PATIENT PREPARATIONS It is of import to retrieve that the patient has endured and emotionally distressing and straitening event in add-on to physical hurts he or she may hold sustained. If the patient is witting, speak calmly and look straight in the patient eyes while explicating the process that have been ordered. Make non presume that the patient can non or will react. Check the patient exhaustively for the point that might do an artefact on the images. Explaining what you are taking from the patient and why. Be assure to put all the removal personal effects particularly valuable in the proper container used by the installation or in the designated secure country. Every installation has process sing proper storage of patient personal belonging. Be certain to cognize the process and follow it carefully.